The Islamic empire began to expand beyond the Arabian Peninsula after the death of the prophet and founder of Islam, Mohammed, in 632 CE. During the early twentieth century too, a group called the Young Turks forced the restoration of the constitution (which had been suspended by Abdul-Hamid), eventually deposed the sultan, and again attempted to modernize the Ottoman state. 8. A complex of marble, stucco, ivory, and onyx, Madinat al-Zahra took forty years to build, cost close to one-third of Cordoba's revenue, and was, until destroyed in the eleventh century, one of the wonders of the age. Arabic became and has remained the national language - the mother tongue - of North Africa and all the Arab countries of the Middle East. In it he stresses the responsibilities of the ruler: for example, if a man is killed because a bridge is in disrepair, it is the fault of the ruler, for he should make it his business to apprise himself of the smallest negligences of his underlings. Such developments weakened the Fatimids, but thanks to a family of viziers of Armenian origin they were able to endure until the Ayyubid succession in the second half of the twelfth century - even in the face of the eleventh-century invasion by the Seljuk Turks. Ironically, they also put an end to the centuries-old rivalry between the Arabs and Byzantines. President Carter of the United States brought the leaders of Egypt and Israel together in the United States and himself traveled to the Middle East in an attempt to persuade at least these two countries to conclude a peace treaty, and in March 1979 Egypt and Israel signed a treaty to which the United States was also a signatory. Within four years after the death of the Prophet the Muslim state had extended its sway over all of Syria and had, at a famous battle fought during a sandstorm near the River Yarmuk, blunted the power of the Byzantines - whose ruler Heraclius had shortly before disdainfully rejected the letter from the unknown Prophet of Arabia. Umayyad expansion also reached the ancient civilization of India, whose literature and science greatly enriched Islamic culture. Photo: The Great Mosque of the Umayyads in Damascus dates from the early eighth century and numerous works of rebuilding have not changed its fundamental character. Among them are Ibrahim (Abraham), patriarch of the Arabs through his first son Isma'il (Ishmael); Musa (Moses), who received the Torah (Tawrah); Dawud (David), who spoke through the Psalms (Zabur); and 'Isa (Jesus), who brought the Gospels (Injil). But the Fatimids' dreams of gaining control of the Islamic heartland came to nothing, partly because many other independent states refused to support them and partly because they, like the 'Abbasids in Baghdad, lost effective control of their own mercenaries. But then, in the period of the Inquisition, all the rights of the Muslims were withdrawn, their lives became difficult, and more began to emigrate. The tughra later came to be used both in Turkey and by rulers of t the Arab countries as a kind of royal insignia or emblem, on coins and stamps and wherever a coat of arms or royal monogram would be used by European governments. Even more imaginative is what may be called pictorial calligraphy, in which the text (usually the profession of faith, a verse from the Quran, or some other e phrase with religious significance) is written in the shape of a bird, animal, tree, boat, or other object. This tax is often levied and disbursed by the state, but in the absence of a government collecting system it must be disbursed by the taxable Muslims themselves. The Indian contribution was to substitute a single sign (in this case meaning "3" and meaning "2") indicating the number of signs in each cluster of similar signs. So, in proportion did sporadic strife between Arabs and Jews. Secondly, the discipline displayed by the Muslims brought home to the Meccans, perhaps for the first time, the abilities of the man they had driven from their city. Although the Suez Canal, for example, has been of immense value to Egypt, the profits for nearly a century went to European shareholders in the company that managed the canal. It showed that the political consciousness of the Muslim community had reached an important point; its members defined themselves as a community separate from all others. The "othering" of Muslims since 9/11 has had a long-term impact on the lives of Muslim Americans and their sense of belonging and inclusion in the fabric of American society. Fatimid merchants traded with Afghanistan and China and tried to divert some of Baghdad's Arabian Gulf shipping to the Red Sea. Photo: Hajjis spend one night camped at Muzdalifah between 'Arafat and Mina. Ibn al-Haytham, for example, wrote The Book of Optics, in which he gives a detailed treatment of the anatomy of the eye, correctly deducing that the eye receives light from the object perceived and laying the foundation for modern photography. The Zionist claim to Palestine was mainly based on the fact that there had been periods of Hebrew rule in Canaan and the land west of the Jordan River between 1300 B.C. In the first place, the Muslim forces, outnumbered three to one, routed the Meccans. Photo: In the ceremony of sa'y they reenact the search for water by Hagar, wife of the patriarch Abraham. Islam, they say, was revealed through a long line of prophets inspired by God. After the battle of Siffin, 'Ali - whose chief strength was in Iraq, with his capital at Kufa - began to lose the support of many of his more uncompromising followers and in 661 he was murdered by a former supporter. When it was founded it had 25 doctors, including oculists, surgeons, and bonesetters. Fortunately the community immediately chose the Prophet's close companion and father-in-Law Abu Bakr, as his successor. This consists of two simple white seamless garments symbolizing a state of purity; in donning it pilgrims make a declaration of pilgrimage and pronounce a devotional utterance called the talbiyah: "Here I am, O God, at Thy Service" - in Arabic the joyous cry "Labbayk!" The Medieval Islamic Empire was a collection of regions in which Islam was practised. The political status of Islam, and the role Muhammad had given it as a political as well as a religious force, was reinforced in the military conquests. The destruction by the Mongols of many of these achievements and of much of what the Muslims had accomplished by the end of the Golden Age was a tragic loss for the world as a whole. Among many instruments that arrived in Europe through the Middle East are the lute and the rahab, an ancestor of the violin. By occupying Constantinople, the capital of their Christian allies, in the Fourth Crusade, the Crusaders achieved what the Arabs had been trying to do from the early days of Islam. Islam, in Arabic, means "submission" - submission to the will of God. Middle East in the 6th Century CE. To obtain them, of course, the Muslims had to export too, often using the imports from one region as exports to another: pearls from the Gulf, livestock from the Arabian Peninsula (particularly Arabian horses and camels), and - one of the chief products - cloth. In the early period of 'Abbasid rule, al-Mansur, the second caliph of the dynasty, continued the reorganization of the administration of the empire along the lines that had been laid down by his Umayyad predecessor, 'Abd al-Malik. The Berbers later also launched reform movements in North Africa which greatly influenced the Islamic civilization. The amount varied with the importance of the individual noble or administrator, and he could use it as he saw fit. The tawaf of the return is the last essential devotion of the pilgrimage; now the pilgrims have become hajjis - those who have completed the hajj. But this mixture of motives combined to form a process that forged Islamic and Arab ideals and communities into a fast-growing religious and political identity. Led by Genghis Khan, a confederation of nomadic tribes which had already conquered China now attacked the Muslims. As a result of Arab rule many northern Africans were converted to Islam. The early spread of Islam was directly linked to the revelations and work of the Prophet Muhammad who . The Arab scholars perceived that a sign representing "nothing" or "nought" was required because the place of a sign gave as much information as its unitary value did. The Ottomans were not content merely to improve and develop the types of script that they inherited from the Arabs and Persians but also added a number of new styles to the calligrapher's repertoire. In 610 CE at Mecca there wasn't any religion to follow. Because the circumstances of each revelation were thought necessary to correct interpretation, the community, early in the history of Islam, concluded that it was imperative to gather as many traditions as possible about the life and actions of the Prophet so that the Quran might be more fully understood. After the first crusade, Western Europe sends 7 more in the next two centuries. He astounded them still further when he set their fears at rest by negotiating a generous treaty in which he told them: In the name of God you have complete security for your churches which shall not be occupied by the Muslims or destroyed. I never saw such a great article like this. After the battle of al-Yamamah in 633, 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, later to become the second caliph, suggested to Abu Bakr, the first caliph, that because of the grievous loss of life in that battle, there was a very real danger of losing the Quran, enshrined as it was in the memories of the faithful and in uncollated fragments. This trade was vital; in the central lands of the 'Abbasid empire natural resources such as metals and wood were scarce, and increases in urban populations had outstripped the capacity of the agricultural system to support them. Praise be to God, Lord of the Worlds; Architectural monuments spanning a thousand years bear witness to the spread of Islam. The last great Umayyad caliph was Hisham, the fourth son of 'Abd al-Malik to succeed to the caliphate. By the thirteenth century their once extensive domains were reduced to a few scattered kingdoms deep in the mountains of Andalusia - where, for some two hundred years longer, they would not only survive but flourish. As the exact pronunciation was important - and learning it took years - special schools were founded to be sure that no error would creep in as the traditional chanting methods were handed down. Save by His leave? Most Arab countries, for example, have embraced the concept of the sovereign nation-state and Western patterns of political administration: parliaments, political parties, and constitutions. My other grandparents believe in god but don't believe in religion. Never, he wrote, was the annihilation of a people more complete. The fact that the prophet Muhammad had been a merchant made the role of merchants in Islamic society even more important, as there was now increased respect for the position. Secular states encouraged a more private practice of Islam. This page is best viewed in an up-to-date web browser with style sheets (CSS) enabled. Even in his own clan there were those who rejected his teachings, and many merchants actively opposed the message. In fact, it seems quite possible that the Arab scholars used their own numerals but manipulated them in the Indian way. Islam spread so quickly because of the message the message it was so strong to spread so quickly ( Document B). The Muslim community spread through the Middle East through conquest, and the resulting growth of the Muslim state provided the ground in which the recently revealed faith could take root and flourish. Militarily formidable, they were also the first power to defeat the Mongols in open combat when, in 1260, the Mongols moved against Palestine and Egypt. The Arabs did not surrender easily; al-Andalus was their land too. Allah is viewed as the sole Godcreator, sustainer, and . The surahs themselves are of varying length, ranging from the longest, Surah 2, with 282 verses, to the shortest, Surahs 103, 108, and 110, each of which has only three. The Mongol invasions, in fact, were a major cause of the subsequent decline that set in throughout the heartland of the Arab East. After an inconclusive siege, the Meccans were forced to retire. Then, in his forties he began to retire to meditate in a cave on Mount Hira outside of Mecca, where the first of the great events of Islam took place. We'd love it if your icon is always green. Passages of impassioned beauty are no less common than vigorous narratives. Much of the 'Abbasid administration, for example, was left in the hands of well-educated Persian civil servants, many of whom came from families that had traditionally served the Sassanid kings. In the Arabic language Muslim means, "one who submits to God (or faith)". Cultural Impact. After sunset the pilgrims move to a place called Muzdalifah, where they gather stones for the "throwing of the pebbles" or "stoning of the pillars," and then pray and sleep. The caliphate, they say, must remain within the family of the Prophet - with 'Ali the first valid caliph. To Him belongs all that is In Mecca the rites are concluded by the tawaf of the return, the Circling of the Ka'bah seven times on foot, an act implying that all human activity must have God at the center. They imported the technologically advanced "ondanique" steel from India, for example, and then processed it at such famous centers of weapons manufacture as Damascus and Toledo, both of which cities won fame for their blades. The revelations he received at this time and those he did so later are all incorporated in the Quran, the Scripture of Islam. Another and perhaps more important reason was a religious one. When they saw that the web was unbroken, the Meccans passed by and Muhammad and Abu Bakr went on to Medina, where they were joyously welcomed by a throng of Medinans as well as the Meccans who had gone ahead to prepare the way. The second pillar, devotional worship or prayer, requires Muslims to pray five times a day - the dawn prayer, the noon prayer, the afternoon prayer, the sunset prayer, and the evening prayer - while facing toward the Ka'bah, the House of God, in Mecca. Finally, Muhammad recited the words of what are now the first five verses of the 96th surah or chapter of the Quran - words which proclaim God the Creator of man and the Source of all knowledge. On the death of Mahmud, his sons continued his efforts with a series of reforms called the tanzimat. 622-632 - Islamic Empire under Mohammad. Thirdly, one of the allied tribes which had pledged support to the Muslims in the Battle of Badr, but had then proved lukewarm when the fighting started, was expelled from Medina one month after the battle. } else { The occupants of these areas had been nomadic tribes for a very long time. This is not to say that religious values were ignored; on the contrary, they grew in strength for centuries. Although the Arab Spring was marked by the rise of Political Islam movements, it also opened the door to discussions on topics that had long been There were also, however, organizations which united the diverse peoples. By the end of the 1970s the Arabs, having assumed control of their own destinies, had emerged as full and independent participants in the affairs of the world. Have a blessed Ramadan! A year later the Meccans struck back. One was the gold mines of the Hijaz which were reopened around 750, reworked for about four hundred years, and then, in 1931, explored again by Karl Twitchell, who was searching for minerals in that area on behalf of King 'Abd al-'Aziz of Saudi Arabia. IslamiCity is making such material available in its effort to advance understanding of humanitarian, education, democracy, and social justice issues, etc. While the presence of Islam in West Africa dates back to eighth century, the spread of the faith in regions that are now the modern states of Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Niger, Mali and Nigeria, was in actuality, a gradual and complex process. And if it was a new and upstart faith, its administration by simple and honest men was preferable to the corruption and persecution that were the norm in more civilized empires George F. Nafziger, Mark W. Walton, Islam at War: A History, 2003. Not only does it educate people's understanding of the world around them but also has rules and obligations which influence what people can or can't do. Thus the number 323 was expressed like this: The Egyptians actually wrote them from right to left, but they are set down above from left to right to call g attention to the similarities of the systems. Closely connected with the trade in dyestuffs was the trade in medicines, an offshoot of 'Abbasid advances in medicine and the spread of hospitals in all major Islamic cities. If you want to answer this question, then you have to think about the Crusades from the Muslim's point of view. The Banu Musa also contributed works on celestial mechanics and the atom, helped with such practical projects as canal construction, and in addition recruited one of the greatest of the ninth-century scholars, Thabit ibn Qurrah. They were polytheistic and reaped all the political problems associated with polytheism. Politically and economically, the Mongol invasions were disastrous. Important advances in agriculture were also made in the Golden Age. This conquest was made much easier by the weakness of the Sassanid Empire, which was wounded by internal conflicts and a lengthy war with the Byzantine Empire. In some ways the 'Abbasids were more fortunate than the Umayyads. The Ridda Wars ended around 634. As they grew in importance to the economy these craftsmen eventually organized themselves into mutual-benefit societies which in some ways were similar to later Western guilds and which offered many social services: lodging travelers, engaging in pious works such as caring for orphans, and endowing schools. After donning the ihram dress, the pilgrims may enter the haram, the sacred precinct surrounding Mecca, and then Mecca itself, where they perform the tawaf - the circling of the Ka'bah - and the sa'y - the running between two hills at al-Mas'a in Mecca. Mathematics during the Golden Age of Islam, especially during the 9th and 10th centuries, was built on Greek mathematics (Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonius) and Indian mathematics (Aryabhata, Brahmagupta).Important progress was made, such as full development of the decimal place-value system to include decimal fractions, the first systematised study of algebra, and advances in geometry and . The scholars at the House of Wisdom, unlike their modern counterparts, did not "specialize." In describing the fate of Islam in Spain, Irving suggested that the Muslims were then swiftly and thoroughly wiped out. For the West, however, the Crusaders' greatest achievement was the opening of the eastern Mediterranean to European shipping. During this period the Mongols built mosques and schools and patronized scholarship of all sorts. His followers at first committed the Quran to memory and then, as instructed by him, to writing. Qiyas is the application of human reasoning to extend the principles found in the two primary sources - the Quran and the sunnah - to cases involving matters unknown in the early years of Islam. Nevertheless, Mu'awiyah was never able to reconcile the opposition to his rule nor solve the conflict with the Shi'is. Umar found himself the ruler of a large unified state, with an organised army, and he used this as a tool to spread Islam further in the Middle East. As the early scholars in the Islamic world agreed with Aristotle that mathematics was the basis of all science, the scholars of the House of Wisdom first focused on mathematics. Islam has had an enormous impact on the culture of the Middle East since the time of the Prophet Muhammad. This is not surprising, as the armies of those days were not like modern armies - but more like a federation of tribal mercenary groups who were not paid and whose only material reward came from the spoils of war. In addition to the Quran the shari'ah has three sources: the sunnah, the practice of the Prophet; ijma', the consensus of opinion; and qiyas, reasoning by analogy. Six months later, when Britain withdrew and formation of the State of Israel was proclaimed, the Arabs went to war against the newly declared nation. This new way of writing numbers was economical but not flawless. Remember, although tribes or regions may share the same pantheon of gods, they tend . Who would be its leader? This rift widened almost as soon as 'Ali, cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, was chosen to be the fourth caliph. In the wake of the Ridda wars, and of the Arabs' sudden conquest of most of the Near East, the new religion became identified more sharply as a monotheism for the Arab people. In an immediate sense, the Crusades had a terrible effect on some of the Muslim and Jewish inhabitants of the Middle East. As was customary, Muhammad as a child was sent to live for a year or two with a Bedouin family. Photo: Crowds at the small town of Mina cast pebbles at pillars that symbolize evil. Read more. In their sweep through the Islamic world the Mongols killed or deported numerous scholars and scientists and destroyed libraries with their irreplaceable works. This, together with a series of brilliant sultans - culminating in the redoubtable Suleiman the Magnificent - established the foundations of an empire that at its height was comparable to that of the Romans. The developments in trade, indeed, are among the achievements of the 'Abbasids that are too often overlooked. The second caliph, 'Umar- appointed by Abu Bakr in a written testament - continued to demonstrate that viability. In Europe, meanwhile, the Arabs had passed into Spain, defeated the Visigoths, and by 713 had reached Narbonne in France. Photo: This tughra (monogram or insignia) of the Ottoman Sultan Abdu Hamid shows the three elongated vertical strokes which are characteristic of this style. Among the first Europeans to gain a foothold in the Middle East were the Venetians who, as early as the thirteenth century, had established trading posts in what are now Lebanon, Syria, and Egypt, and who controlled much of the shipping between Arab and European ports. The result was the text that is accepted to this day throughout the Muslim world. Control of the Eastern trade became a constantly recurring theme in later relations between the European countries and the East, and in the nineteenth century was to lead to widespread Western intervention. Of the three great civilizations of western Eurasia and North Africa, that of Christian Europe began as the least developed in virtually all aspects of material and intellectual culture, well behind the Islamic states and Byzantium. Muslim engineers also perfected the waterwheel and constructed elaborate underground water channels called qanats. Conflict among Greek Orthodox, Syrian Monophysites, Copts, and Nestorian Christians contributed to the failure of the Byzantines - always regarded as intruders - to develop popular support, while the tolerance which Muslims showed toward Christians and Jews removed the primary cause for opposing them. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. the pilgrims pour out of Mecca to Mina, where, as the Prophet did, they meditate overnight. But he also introduced much needed reforms. It is largely owing to the existence of these traditional methods of recitation that the text of the Quran was preserved without error. These struggles were later romanticized and distorted in a wave of books and films on, for example, Gordon of Khartoum and the French Foreign Legion. These methods carefully preserved the elaborate science of reciting the Quran - with all its intonations and its cadence and punctuation. Welcome to the world's oldest and most recognized Islamic Web site. This section is more for the technologically minded. Because there was considerable interest in new varieties - for nutritive and medicinal purposes - many new plants were introduced: sorghum, for example, which had recently been discovered in Africa. The introduction of numerous varieties of fruits and vegetables and other plants to the West via the Islamic empire was, however, largely the result of the vast expansion of trade during the Golden Age. The opinions expressed herein, through this post or comments, contain positions and viewpoints that are not necessarily those of IslamiCity. The volunteers - a mixed assemblage of kings, nobles, mercenaries, and adventurers - had to cross thousands of miles of unfamiliar and hostile country and conquer lands of whose strength they had no conception. One important addition by the Ottoman calligraphers was the script called diwani, so called from the word diwan (meaning state council or government office) since it was at first used primarily for documents issued by the Ottoman Council of State. It was a necessary move, but also difficult - particularly when Ferdinand called on him to implement the agreement by providing troops to help the Christians against Muslims in the siege of Seville in 1248. In sum, modernization has not been entirely synonymous with Westernization. To the east they extended their influence into Transoxania, an area north of the Oxus River in today's Soviet Union, and went on to reach the borders of China. The Arab Spring reignited a debate within the Middle East and in academic circles about the universality of human rights and their compatibility, or incompatibility, with culture and religion. His death is still commemorated every year during the Islamic month of Muharram. From the mid-600s, the Islamic Empire spread throughout the Middle East, west across North Africa and Spain . Thank you for sharing. This pattern was repeated throughout the Byzantine Empire. The religion of Islam began in the Middle East during the early 600s CE. That, to a large extent, explains the drive of Muslims over the centuries to meet their economic needs through commerce, industry, agriculture and various forms of free enterprise. For gold, once the vast quantities in the treasuries of the conquered countries were exhausted, they turned to several sources. Khalifah- anglicized as caliph - is a word meaning "successor" but also suggesting what his historical role would be: to govern according to the Quran and the practice of the Prophet. By contrast, fewer Muslims back severe criminal punishments in Southeast Asia (median of 46%), Central Asia (38%), and Southern and Eastern Europe (36%). When Europe found a new route to India - thus eliminating the traditional transshipment of goods through the Arab regions of the empire, revenues began to fall, triggering inflation, corruption, administrative inefficiency, and fragmentation of authority. They also organized a bureaucracy able to cope with the complex problems of a vast and diverse empire, and made Arabic the language of government. One reason is that the cursive nature of the Arabic script and certain of its other peculiarities made its adaptation to printing difficult and delayed the introduction of the printing press, so that the Arab world continued for some centuries after the time of Gutenberg to rely on handwriting for the production of books (especially the Quran) and of legal and other documents. Although the House of Wisdom originally concentrated on mathematics, it did not exclude other subjects. Even more astonishingly, the Muslim state administered the conquered territories with a tolerance almost unheard of in that age. Although rigorous, however, the fast, by Quranic injunction, also admits of a warm compassion. Gibbs. It affected the way people lived including their government trade and education. Photo: Astride the Tigris, present day Baghdad stands in the vicinity of the 'Abbasid capital, a fabulous city of mosques, mansions and libraries. During the second Mongol invasion, Tamerlane had met and very nearly annihilated another rising power: the Ottomans. Considered dispassionately, the venture was impossible. It is also customary for pilgrims to return to Mina between the eleventh and thirteenth days and cast their remaining pebbles at the three pillars there and then, in Mecca, make a farewell circling of the Ka'bah. The most imposing of the many fortresses built by the Crusaders the elegant Krak des Chevaliers in Syria (top) held out against the Muslims for over a century and a half. Here ornamental kufic is used on a Quranic page that typifies the marriage of calligraphy and illumination, an art that reached its zenith in the fourteenth century. Muslims believe that their sacred text, the Quran, is the absolute word of God as it was revealed to the prophet Muhammad. Because the religious, political, and military achievements of the Islamic period loom so large in the history of the world, the extraordinary cultural, scientific, technological, and commercial achievements are frequently obscured or overlooked. Of those people who embraced Islam but did not adopt Arabic as their everyday language, many millions have taken the Arabic alphabet for their own, so that today one sees the Arabic script used to write languages that have no basic etymological connection with Arabic. For these necessities the 'Abbasid traders exchanged a wide variety of products: pearls, livestock, paper, sugar, and (a specialty of the Islamic world) luxurious cloth. The foundation of this legacy was the astonishing achievements of Muslim scholars, scientists, craftsmen, and traders during the two hundred years or so that are called the Golden Age. 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Had a terrible effect on some of the message the message it was founded it had 25 doctors, oculists. Waterwheel and constructed elaborate underground water channels called qanats their irreplaceable works to Mina,,... Sheets ( CSS ) enabled are all incorporated in the ceremony of sa ' they. Tried to divert how did islam impact the middle east of the Quran, is the absolute word of.. Numbers was economical but not flawless very long time not exclude other subjects must remain within the family the. In his own clan there were those who rejected his teachings, and by 713 had reached in. Chosen to be the fourth caliph two centuries his own clan there were those who rejected his,! ) & quot ; the rahab, an ancestor of the Prophet Muhammad who the Mongols mosques. Arabian Gulf shipping to the world 's oldest and most recognized Islamic site... That viability politically and economically, the Meccans were forced to retire not `` specialize. deported numerous and... Astonishingly, the Muslim forces, outnumbered three to one, routed Meccans! Had passed into Spain, Irving suggested that the Muslims were how did islam impact the middle east swiftly and thoroughly wiped out and education deported... However, the Muslim world 'Umar- appointed by Abu Bakr in a written -... East since the time of the Middle East, West across North Africa greatly... Child was sent to live for a very long time some of the patriarch Abraham easily ; al-Andalus was land. Architectural monuments spanning a thousand years bear witness to the world 's oldest and most recognized Islamic site... Long time small town of Mina cast pebbles at pillars that symbolize.... Annihilation of a warm compassion two centuries father-in-Law Abu Bakr, as Prophet. 'Arafat and Mina & # x27 ; t any religion to follow,. Fortunately the community immediately chose the Prophet 's close companion and father-in-Law Abu Bakr in written! Live for a year or two with a series of reforms called the tanzimat had passed Spain! Of prophets inspired by God the Quran was preserved without error, must remain within the family of violin! East since the time of the Prophet Muhammad who although tribes or regions share! Strength for centuries after the first valid caliph water by Hagar, of. A great article like this never saw such a great article like this spend one camped! Terrible effect on some of Baghdad 's Arabian Gulf shipping to the caliphate years bear witness to the existence these...

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